Literary+Criticism

=Literary Criticism= Below are several different types of literary criticism. Those labeled in blue are theories we have discussed in class; you should become familiar with these. However, you might find the other theories interesting and helpful, too.

New Criticism
New Criticism was most popular in the 1940s and 1950s. Contrary to previous theories, which tried to determine a text's meaning based on the author's intent or the historical context of the text, New Critics believed that the text was completely divorced from these things. In other words, it didn't matter what the author intended when he or she wrote the text, or what historical context the text was written in. The meaning would be the same regardless of whether the text was written in the Middle Ages or just yesterday. New Criticism is often what is taught in high schools, and is sometimes called “close reading.”

Characteristics/major ideas of New Criticism

 * Very scientific. Assumes that all texts have observable patterns and structure
 * Examines the relationship between what the text says and how it says it
 * Uses special vocabulary like // third person, denouement, rising action, protagonist, // etc.
 * Special attention is paid to repetition, especially of symbols and images
 * **Meaning exists on the page.** Only pays attention to what can be observed within the text—no speculation
 * The text and the properties of the text are not the author's—no relationship between author and text
 * Discourages considering the work in terms of author intent, historical context, or emotional responses of the reader
 * Tends to put a value judgment on the text to determine its effectiveness. Is this an //effective// point of view? Are these images or symbols //effective// ? Do they work? What can be gained through reading the text?
 * The critic //interprets// the text to help the reader understand it

The most important feature of New Criticism is that there are **correct** interpretations of a text (although there's always arguments about what these are!). According to some critics, there may be multiple simultaneous meanings, but not everyone's interpretation is correct. Most contemporary critics would refute this idea, but New Criticism is helpful when learning to pay attention to the details that make up a text. **To do a New Critical reading:**
 * Look for paradox and irony
 * Find an observable theme in the text
 * Pay attention to one specific term—point of view, sound, imagery, narrative structure, metaphor/simile, etc.
 * Ask yourself, “How does this piece work?”
 * Ask yourself, “Is this piece effective? Why or why not?”
 * How can you // interpret // the text based **only** on evidence you find within the text?

**Paradox**
A statement that seems absurd or contradictory, but actually holds some truth. Sometimes used to describe a statement that is contrary to what is generally regarded as true. This term is often used to grab the reader's attention.

Example: All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.

**Irony**
A conflict between what is said and what is meant (sometimes confused with sarcasm), or what is expected and what actually occurs. There are three types of literary irony:
 * Dramatic irony: the reader knows something that the character does not.
 * // Example // : In // Romeo and Juliet //, the audience knows Juliet is not really dead, but Romeo does not.
 * Verbal irony: contradiction between what is said and what is meant. This usually comes in three forms: sarcasm, hyperbole (overstatement), or understatement.
 * // Sarcasm // : Telling someone who just slipped and fell, “Way to go, Grace!”
 * // Hyperbole: // “I was so embarrassed, I wanted to die.”
 * // Understatement: // When you're very sick, you might say, “I've been better.”
 * Situational irony: conflict between what is expected and what actually happens
 * // Example: // “Water, water, everywhere, and not a drop to drink.”

** Ambiguity **
A statement that is deliberately unclear or can have multiple meanings.

Example: Is the ghost of Hamlet's father really a ghost, or a figment of Hamlet's imagination?

** Point of View **
Essentially, this is how (and by whom) the story is told. In New Criticism, this refers to particular grammatical structures, often related to pronoun use, that show different ways of telling a story. There are three basic types of point of view:
 * // Third person // : uses // he // or // she // to describe ** the ** ** narrator ** . “He walked into the room.”
 * // First person // : uses // I // or // me // to describe the narrator: “I walked into the room.”
 * // Second person // : (fairly rare) uses // you // and // yours // to describe the main character: “You walked into the room.”

** Narrative structure **
How the story is “shaped.” For a really good explanation of narrative structure, see this PDF. New Critics frequently use this diagram to explain narrative structure:

Major Theorists
F. R. Leavis William Empson Cleanth Brooks T. S. Eliot Robert Penn Warren

**Works Consulted**
Delahoyde, Michael. “New Criticism.” [] WiseGeek.com. “What is New Criticism?” []

Psychoanalytic Criticism
This type of criticism is pretty self-explanatory--it's the application psychological principles to the characters and situations presented in a text and to the author him or herself. Sometimes it also analyzes what psychological effect a text is meant to have upon its reader. Psychoanalysis comes from the 1930s. Its most famous theorist was Sigmund Freud, though you may also recognize the names Jacques Lacan and Carl Jung.


 * Characteristics/major ideas of Psychoanalytic Criticism**
 * Frequently discusses the unconscious mind
 * (Freud) Compares literary texts to dreams in that texts are a reflection of what is going on inside the author. The text is a manifestation of the author's psychological issues.
 * These issues will be in "code," which must be interpreted by analyzing patterns, symbols, etc. within the text
 * Like New Criticism, ignores what the author intended. Instead, it analyzes what the author **did not** intend to show--that is, what the subconscious mind accidentally reveals.


 * What a Psychoanalysis Critic Looks at**
 * **The Author:** the author's psychological issue(s) and their //manifestations// (how these issues are treated in the text). This type of analysis would look at the author's personal life and try to link it to what's going on in the text.
 * **The Characters:** the characters' issue(s), relationships, behavior, motivations, etc.
 * **The Audience:** why and how does this text appeal to the audience? What unconscious reactions does the text draw from the reader? This type of analysis assumes that the text embodies some universal psychological themes that appeal to every audience.
 * **The text:** this type of analysis examines the themes, imagery, and symbolism within the text as one would examine a dream.

To do a Psychoanalytic Reading:

 * Think of the text like a dream, where everything says something about the subconscious of the dreamer/author.
 * Think about family dynamics, especially parent/child relationships.
 * Remember that everybody has some kind of psychological problem--the author AND the characters.
 * Think about the Big four: repression, fear, fascination with death, and sex.

Psychoanalytic Research Questions for Push/Precious

 * The relationship between Sapphire and Precious and their relationships with others (criticisms, judging others).
 * How does Precious’ childhood influence how she hopes to raise Abdul
 * When Precious was first learning how to spell, were the words that she wrote in her journal somehow influenced by her unconscious mind/id?
 * How does lack of contact with her father affect Precious psychologically?
 * The author must have had some type of interactions with crack addicts, therefore that is why she has such a negative outlook on them and talks so poorly about them.
 * Did Sapphire mean to idealize the white race?
 * Why does society try so hard to relate to the situations in Precious, even if their own personal situation isn’t as bad?
 * Her conflict with past sexual relations and how it will affect future sexual relations.
 * What kind of work would Precious seek when all her life her mother has just lived off welfare checks?
 * Where does her maternal feelings toward Abdul come from?
 * Will Precious change externally now that she’s changing internally?
 * Will Precious seek abusive relationships with men?

Psychoanalysis Vocab
We //repress// anything we don't want to remember or think about--in Freud's mind, this often involves unpleasant or traumatic events, usually from childhood.
 * Repression**

The part of our minds that cannot be controlled. This is where fears/phobias and sexual desire comes from. The unconscious is completely irrational.
 * Unconscious**

Essentially, these two ideas rise out of the child's need for his or her parents. The Oedipus complex, in Freud's theories, states that the son wants to kill his father (literally or symbolically) and marry his mother to remain the sole focus of her attention. The Electra complex states that the daughter wants to kill her mother and marry her father.
 * Oedipus/Electra Complex**

A manifestation is an embodiment of something that can be observed. For example, the manifestation of fear might be wide eyes, a frightened expression, trembling, etc. In psychoanalysis, manifestations are usually the id (unconscious) "acting out" in ways we don't intend or want.
 * Manifestation**

Freud's Triumverate

 * Id:** the unconscious part of the mind. This part houses fears, desires, etc. and we cannot control it. Our id sometimes "acts out" in ways we don't intend--often against the superego.
 * Ego:** the part of the mind that acts as a mediator/middleman between the id and the superego. Some theorists believe that we can control this part of our minds at least partially.
 * Superego:** the part of the mind sometimes thought of as the conscience. This part censors our behavior to adhere to social norms.

Major Theorists
Sigmund Freud Jacques Lacan Charles Mauron

Works Consulted/Resources
Delahoyde, Michael. "Psychoanalytic Criticism." @http://www.wsu.edu/~delahoyd/psycho.crit.html Felluga, Dino. "Introduction to Psychoanalysis." @http://www.cla.purdue.edu/academic/engl/theory/psychoanalysis/ Holcombe, John C. "Freudian Literary Criticism." @http://www.textetc.com/criticism/freudian-criticism.html McManus, Barbara. "Psychoanalytic Approaches." @http://www2.cnr.edu/home/bmcmanus/psychcrit.html Siegel, Kristi. "Psychoanalytic Criticism." @http://www.kristisiegel.com/theory.htm

Mythological/Archetypal Criticism
Mythological criticism looks at the universal patterns that theorists say occur in all stories, beginning with ancient myths. These theorists believe that every story contains combinations of the same basic elements. //The Odyssey// is just like //Star Wars// is just like //The Wizard of Oz// if you look at them closely enough. **Characteristics of Mythological/Archetypal Criticism**
 * Critics identify universal //archetypes// in stories as methods of exploring deeper meaning.
 * Critics make reference to mythological stories to create connections in hopes of showing the universal appeal of literature
 * Relates to psychoanalytic criticism because it is concerned with the universal ideas that underly human behavior
 * Myths are symbolic of people's universal fears, beliefs, values, desires, etc.


 * What Mythological/Archetypal Critics look at**
 * Universal symbols, characters, images, themes, etc.
 * The Hero's Journey (a universal plot)
 * How the myths of a certain culture reflect its beliefs, fears, values, desires, etc.
 * Underlying, recurrent patterns in literature

To do a Mythological/Archetyal Reading

 * Find connections between the text and other texts (not just myths)
 * Look for universal images and concepts (e.g., death/rebirth, color symbolism, animal symbolism, the hero)
 * Use the principles from psychoanalysis to explore the universal concepts in a text

Mythological/Archetypal Vocab
All of the conscious and unconscious processes of the mind.
 * Psyche**

Everything that the mind is aware of. Our minds are constantly processing information and forgetting information.
 * Consciousness**

Everything the mind has forgotten or doesn't consciously realize: memories, thoughts, feelings, ideas, etc.
 * Personal Unconscious**

Contents of the mind that do not originate in an individual, but are (some theorists speculate) inherited. You might think of this as human instinct, but on a more complex level. This is the understanding and comprehension that all human beings share.
 * Collective Unconscious**

Part of the collective unconscious. An archetype is an idea, symbol, image, character, or theme found in many stories. In literary criticism, archetypes represent a certain //function// within a story rather than a particular character, which is why many different characters can represent the same archetype.
 * Archetype**

The image an individual presents to the world.
 * Persona**

Archetypes
Here are some examples of Jung's archetypes. Many of them are based on Greek gods.

The dark, sometimes hidden part of a psyche.
 * Shadow**

The feminine aspect. The inner feminine part of the male personality or a man's image of a woman.
 * Anima**

The masculine aspect. An inner masculine part of the female personality or a woman's image of a man. **Syzygy** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The divine couple--sometimes a king or queen (masculine and feminine figures). <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**The Child** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This may be literal or completely figurative. It represents birth/new life (or rebirth) and a promise for new beginnings. The Child is meant for great things. The birth of Jesus is the most famous example of this archetype. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Greek pantheon archetypes** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Aphrodite** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The seductive muse. A strong woman who is seductive to men. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//The dark side//: The femme fatale. She deliberately manipulates men. She is unfaithful. She needs to be the center of attention. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//Examples:// Samantha from //Sex and the City;// Rizzo from //Grease//; Cleopatra; Marilyn Monroe; Scarlett O'Hara <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Artemis** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The feminist. She will run to the aid of another and wants to empower others (especially women). The "earth mother." <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//The dark side//: The Gorgon. She isn't levelheaded; impulsive and filled with anger. Reckless. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//Examples:// Buffy from //Buffy the Vampire Slayer;// Xena; Sarah Connor from //The Terminator//; Wonder Woman; Joan of Arc <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Demeter** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The nurturer. She has a sense of duty to help others and tends to be protective. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//Dark side//: The overbearing mother. She's a meddler, trying to help where she's not wanted. She lacks self-confidence and uses guilt to control other. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//Example:// June Cleaver; Mother Teresa; Mary Poppins; Florence Nightingale; Annie Wilkes from //Misery// <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Hera** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Woman in Charge. She demands respect. She is very committed to being a wife and mother. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//The dark side//: The scorned woman. She is dependent on her family and tries to control them. She has no identity outside of her famile. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//Example//: Roseanne from //Roseanne;// Gertrude from //Hamlet;// Mrs. Bennet from //Pride and Prejudice// <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Apollo** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The businessman. He is logical and an extremely hard worker. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//The dark side//: The traitor. He can't accept rejection. He views people as pawns in a game of chess. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//Example:// Spock from //Star Trek//; Alan Grant from //Jurassic Park//; Mr. Darcy from //Pride and Prejudice// <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Ares** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The protector. He is fiercely loyal and protective. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//The dark side//: The gladiator. He is destructive, craving blood and battle. He is prone to rages. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//Examples:// Rocky Balboa; Han Solo; Lancelot; Romeo
 * Animus**

The Hero
The Hero is the protagonist of a story. The hero may be male or female (although sometimes a hero and heroine are interpreted differently). Mythological/archetypal critics argue that most/all heroes have certain traits in common.
 * Unusual circumstances of birth (or royal birth)
 * Leaves family or land behind to live with others
 * A significant (often traumatic) event leads to an adventure or quest (see //Hero's Tale//, below)
 * Think of this as the inciting incident.
 * Has a special weapon only s/he can wield
 * Always has (supernatura)l help
 * This can be interpreted pretty loosely. This might be literal supernatural help or just help that shows up in a timely manner.
 * Must prove him/herself many times while on the quest
 * The unhealable wound
 * The low point(s) that the hero suffers while on the journey. This wound will haunt him/her forever.
 * Atonement with the father
 * This can be a reconciliation with the hero's father and/or atonement for the father's sins.

The Hero's Journey/Monomyth
Joseph Campbell and other theorists believe that all stories involving a hero have the same characteristics or events. The number of "steps" in the journey varies, but they all have the same structure (illustrated below). Most of these concepts apply to "epic" length texts (epic poems, novels, or movies), but aspects of the journey can be applied to shorter works, too. The three basic steps are: For a more complete view of the journey, see the document linked in the "Works Consulted/Resources" section called "The Hero's Journey Guide."
 * 1) Departure/Separation
 * The hero ventures out on the quest, separating him/herself from everything s/he has ever known.
 * 1) Initiation
 * Simply put, the initiation involves the hero's adventures along the way. These involve the hero adapting and dealing with his/her new world.
 * 1) Return
 * The hero returns home with the new powers/knowledge s/he has learned along the way.

**Popular examples of the Hero's Journey**
//Star Wars// //The Wizard of Oz// //The Lion King// //The Hobbit// //The King Arthur stories// //The Odyssey//

**Major Theorists**
Carl Jung Joseph Campbell Northrup Frye Vladimir Propp Erich Neumann Chris Vogler Walter Ong--//Orality and Literacy// C.W. Sullivan J.R.R. Tolkien C.S. Lewis

**Works Consulted/Resources**
<span style="display: block; font-family: arial,geneva;">Campbell, Joseph. //The Hero With a Thousand Faces.// Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1949. <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,geneva;">Davis, Bryan M. "The Archetypal Hero in Literature, Religion, Movies, and Popular Culture." [] <span style="display: block; font-family: arial,geneva;">Holcombe, C. John. "Myth Approaches to Literary Criticism." [] "Mythological and Archetypal Criticism." **[]** "The Hero's Journey Guide." [DOC] **[|http://www.pc.issaquah.wednet.edu/teachers/campbell/Haroun/hero's%20journey%20guide.doc]** Schmidt, Victoria Lynn. //45 Master Characters//. Cincinnatti, OH: Writer's Digest Books, 2001.

Reader-Response Criticism
This type of criticism is not one specific theory; rather, it is a collection of theories that essentially believe that the reader is at the center of the creation of meaning. Reader-response critics believe that reading is an active process, and the reader, not the author and not the text, is the determiner of meaning. Thus, every reader will create a slightly different meaning. However, this type of criticism doesn't advocate willy-nilly responses; there is still structure in the way meaning is produced.


 * Characteristics of Reader-Response Criticism**
 * Critics believe that the reader is an active agent; he or she brings all of his/her experiences into interpretation and creation of meaning.
 * Readers often belong to //interpretive communities//, which read with certain values in mind.
 * Readers find meaning in the act of reading. Each reader has a different reading experience.
 * Author intent and text content is less important than the reader's response to the text.
 * Some critics, like Wolfgang Iser, take a slightly more conservative approach and believe that the author's intent imposes restrictions and conditions on the reader, whereas some critics, like Stanley Fisher, believe that the reader literally //creates// the text, breathing life into it where there was no life before.
 * All readings/interpretations are valid and legitimate--there isn't necessarily a //correct// way to read something. You can't compare one reader's experiences with another's, so you can't pass value judgments.
 * What Reader-Response Critics Look At**
 * The //implied reader// and the //actual reader.//
 * The aspects of the text that arouse, shape, and guide a reader's response
 * How the text can be //performed// (that is, read) by different interpretive communities or different individuals
 * The transaction or dialogue between text and reader
 * How readers (and interpretations) of a text change over the course of history
 * The historical context of a reader/interpretation
 * To do a Reader-Response Reading**
 * Recognize //how// your experiences, values, biases, etc. influence your interpretation of the text
 * Recognize how other potential readers' experiences, values, biases, etc. influence their interpretations of the text
 * Try to figure out the //implied reader//
 * Think about how the //actual reader// compares to the //implied reader//. How might this account for certain interpretations (e.g., if one person is offended and one person loves the story).

**Implied Reader**
The type of reader assumed by the text; the ideal reader. This reader is established by the "response-inviting structures" of the text. What is meant to cause reaction? What kind of reaction? You can assume that the implied/ideal reader would have that reaction.

The real person absorbing the text. This person brings his/her experiences, biases, values, etc. to the reading. He/she may not have the same reactions as the implied reader, and so there is tension between the implied reader and the actual reader.
 * Actual Reader**

A group of critics who have agreed-upon values and also agree ahead of time to pay more attention to some aspects of the text than others. For example, feminist critics often choose to concentrate on the roles of female characters in any given text. Interpretive communities use certain "lenses" through which to read texts.
 * Interpretive Community**

Major Theorists
Louise Rosenblatt Stanley Fish Wolfgang Iser Hans Robert Jauss Elizabeth Freund

Works Consulted/Resources
Bedford/St. Martin's. "virtualLit Critical Approaches: Reader-Response Criticism." [] Ellis-Christensen, Tricia. "What is Reader-Response Criticism?" [] McManus, Barbara. "Reader-Response Criticism." [] Purdue OWL. "What Do You Think?" [] "Reader-Response Criticism." [PDF] [] Siegel, Kristi. "Reception/Reader-Response Theory." []

Rhetorical Criticism
Rhetorical criticism, which came into broad use in the 1980s, doesn’t refer to any one theory. All literary criticism is rhetorical criticism—critics are required to analyze the //rhetoric// of any given text. For the purposes of this discussion, however, I will narrow rhetorical criticism to refer to the analysis of a text’s //argument//, and how it persuades an audience.

Rhetoric is, in a sense, a study of the appropriateness and effectiveness of communication. Many critics believe that communication is, in essence, argumentation—when we communicate, we seek to convince another person to see our side. Rhetoric is all around us: in speeches, in advertisements, in TV shows, and even (maybe especially) in literature. Just because a text is fiction doesn’t mean it isn’t trying to communicate something.


 * Characteristics/major ideas of Rhetorical Criticism**
 * · All texts are arguments.
 * · Arguments have structure. Classical critics often adhere to the Aristotelian structure.
 * · Sees texts as //artifacts// to be examined.
 * · Some debate over who creates meaning—the producer of rhetoric or the audience.
 * · Tends to look at the //effectiveness// of an argument by examining its parts
 * · Texts appeal to audiences in certain ways, using certain methods.
 * · Looks at how symbols affect people.
 * · Sometimes examines the //aesthetics// (aspects of beauty) in a text
 * · The goal is improved understanding and appreciation for a text.

Rhetoricians believe (or at least hint) that there is a correct interpretation of a text. The question is whether the meaning is communicated or interpreted correctly. Again, depending on which theorists you look at, this may be the author’s duty or the audience’s.


 * To do a Rhetorical Analysis:**
 * · Analyze symbolic artifacts (images, diction, structure, etc) to determine //how// they work on an audience
 * · Determine //how well// these artifacts work
 * · Feel free to use a blend of different kinds of criticism, including different types of cultural/social criticism, within the same text
 * · Examine the way textual/symbolic artifacts affect audiences (intended and actual)

**Aristotelian/Classical Theory**
Much of what contemporary theorists know and believe about argumentation came from Aristotle. In chapters of //Poetics//, he outlined the basic structure of an argument as well as the Canons of Rhetoric. It’s important to note that as Aristotle was a teacher, his theories are focused on using these Canons and appeals to //teach// rhetoric rather than to use it. In other words, it is not necessarily indicative of any strict structure of a text.

5 Canons of Rhetoric
Rhetorician Cicero originally outlined these canons of rhetoric, though Cicero largely re-organized and re-interpreted older classical rhetoricians like Aristotle. Like Aristotle, Cicero was a teacher.


 * Invention:** The search for ways to impart information and persuade an audience.
 * //Ethos:// using reputation or credibility of the speaker/author to appeal to an audience
 * //Pathos:// appealing to an audience’s emotions.
 * //Logos//: appealing to an audience’s logic using evidence and reasoning.


 * Arrangement:** Creating the structure of an argument.
 * //Introduction (exordium):// Appeal to the audience. “This is…”
 * //Statement of fact/outline of case (narratio):// “Because…”
 * //Confirmation (conformatio):// Supporting examples
 * //Refutation (refutatio):// Anticipating objections.
 * //Conclusion (peroratio):// Graceful withdrawal.


 * Style:** Presenting the argument in a way that will persuade (and possibly entertain) an audience.


 * Memory:** Speaking without using notes, enabling the message to come through without hesitation. This may be interpreted, in writing, as effectiveness in presentation.


 * Delivery:** Making effective use of the tools of a speaker/writer: voice, diction, symbol, etc.

If we use the idea that fiction is communication and communication is argument, we can use the principles of argument to interpret fiction in a non-literal manner. If it helps, think of a text's //argument// as its //message//, or main idea. An examination of the effectiveness of its message and the way it is conveyed is rhetorical criticism and analysis.
 * How can this be applied to literature?**

Aristotle Cicero Stephen Toulmin Kenneth Burke Sonja Foss
 * Major Theorists (of rhetoric/argument or rhetorical criticism)**

(Critical Theory) Walter Benjamin Jurgen Habermas Herbert Marcuse Michel Foucault

Works Consulted/Resources:
Changingminds.org. "Argument." @http://changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/argument.htm Holcombe, C. John. "Rhetoric Approaches to Literature." @http://www.textetc.com/criticism/rhetoric-approaches.html Morrison, Michael. "Rhetorical Criticism." @http://www.angelfire.com/md/mdmorrison/nt/rhetorical.htm